Norway
Summary Of Conclusions
1. Norway has a strong human rights record that can be further strengthened. Per the UNDP Human Development Index, Norway has the world’s second highest HDI value (0.961 in 2021), a life expectancy at birth of 83.2 years, and 18 years of expected schooling.[1] The country has robust political rights, civil liberties, and democratic norms, though discrimination against immigrant and marginalized groups remains a challenge.[2]
2. Climate change is an anthropologically driven phenomenon to which Norway contributes through its production and use of fossil fuels. Norway uses significant renewable energy for its domestic energy needs but is a major exporter of fossil fuels, routinely placing within the world’s top ten largest fossil fuel producers.[3] In 2022, Norway produced approximately 1,035 TWh of oil and 1,228 TWh of natural gas.[4]
3. Direct and indirect impacts of climate change pose a real and timely threat to human rights within Norway.These impacts include, but are not limited to, coastal erosion leading to the loss of human settlements and natural habitats, a rise in the spread of infectious diseases, declining biodiversity, and an increase in floods and droughts impacting critical infrastructure that Norwegians rely upon for food, shelter, and mobility.[5] Among other things, these impacts require the adoption of climate adaptation measures, which in turn disrupt the rights to self-determination of the Indigenous Sámi people.
4. The Government of Norway has the opportunity, and an obligation under international law, to undertake actions to mitigate climate change and take proactive adaptation measures to protect its peoples’ human rights. Such measures should include reevaluating and reducing its economic reliance on the production of fossil fuels, introducing regulations to encourage enhanced carbon accounting by corporations, adopting more robust climate change adaptation measures in its cities and along its coastlines, and working closely with Indigenous groups to develop solutions that respect their traditional lands and rights.
Human Rights
Norway’s Existing Human Rights Obligations
5. Norway is a signatory to numerous international human rights treaties and has a general principle that Norwegian law should be interpreted in accordance with Norway’s obligations under international law.[6]These treaties include the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR), International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).[7] The country has further codified a number of these through its Human Rights Act. JAI commends Norway for its ratification of these treaties.
6. Norway is a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and has ratified multiple environmental and climate treaties, including the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.[8]
7. Norway has not yet ratified the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (CMW).[9] Ratifying the agreement could help to position Norway as a leader amongst OECD countries on this issue and support the enhancement of domestic laws and regulations protecting the conditions and rights of migrant workers. All domestic policies should of course balance protecting the rights of migrant laborers and supporting Norwegian citizens’ right to engage in productive employment.
Rights of Indigenous Peoples
8. The Sámi are indigenous to northern Norway and the surrounding regions and thereby possess special protections and rights under international and Norwegian law,[10] including but not limited to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (“UNDRIP”). These rights include a right of self-determination, protection of Sámi cultural integrity, and protection of the Sámi’s connection to their historic lands, territories, and resources. These rights are also protected, inter alia, by Article 1 of the ICCPR and ICESCR, as well as Article 27 of the ICCPR. As a semi-nomadic herding people, the Sámi rely on access to Arctic land ecosystems and the oceans for reindeer herding and fishing, as well as other cultural and economic practices.
9. The Sámi have expressed concern over their lack of involvement in decision-making processes regarding the installation of wind turbines, which directly impact the land on which they rely.[11] Norway still has room for growth and could take further steps to facilitate meaningful engagement with the Sámi around infrastructure project decision-making.
10. Forthcoming energy and mitigation projects, such as expanded fossil fuel extraction and wind power initiatives, are likely to further impede upon the lands on which the Sámi depend.[12] These represent opportunities for the government to increase and enrich its engagement with the Sámi, to incorporate their knowledge, interests, and perspectives, and to respect, protect, and fulfil the Sámi people’s rights to self-determination. Any such development projects, at minimum, must be implemented in conformity with principles of free, prior, and informed consent and must protect and ensure the cultural integrity of the Sámi.
Human Rights Abuses by Norwegian Extraction Companies
11. Norway’s energy companies and their subsidiaries have been scrutinized for their potential involvement in “gross and systematic human rights violations.”[13] When raised, these allegations must be thoroughly investigated by the appropriate branches of the Norwegian government, with criminal and civil penalties timely administered where violations are deemed to have occurred. This is supported by Chile’s recommendation in Norway’s 3rd UPR—that the country “continue to promote the application of a human rights perspective to the business activities of Norwegian companies that operate both abroad and at the national level.”
Rights of Women, Minorities, and Refugees
12. Norway has received and assisted over thirty-thousand refugees from Ukraine in the past two years.[14][15]The country also received tens-of-thousands of refugees in and around the 2015 “European Migrant Crisis.” The government should continue to fund programs to support integration and closely monitor discrimination against refugees and visible minorities.[16]
13. Intimate partner violence increased by over 54% during the COVID-19 lockdown period in Norway.[17]While these rates may have since declined, domestic violence continues to be a threat to the well-being of women and children that warrants a system-wide response.
Climate Change
Contribution to Carbon Emissions
14. Norway has meaningfully reduced its domestic carbon emissions over the past three decades. The country generated approximately 48.9 million tonnes of CO₂e emissions in 2022, representing a 4.6% reduction since 1990.[18] This change has been driven largely by the expansion of clean energy technologies, such as hydro and wind power. As of 2021, the country’s domestic emissions accounted for only 0.11% of the world’s CO₂e emissions.[19] Norway uses renewable energy sources, particularly hydropower, for over 80% of its domestic energy consumption.[20][21]
15. Simultaneously, Norway’s production and export of fossil fuels have increased. The country routinely places within the world’s top ten largest producers of fossil fuels.[22] In 2022, Norway produced approximately 1,035 TWh of oil and 1,228 TWh of natural gas.[23]
16. Norway plans to expand its fossil fuel production in the near future. In early 2023, Norway announced a large fossil fuel exploration and extraction expansion plan that would see a record number of land blocks be made available to energy firms in the Barents Sea.[24] JAI expresses serious concerns about such expansion plans on the impact of human rights and the possibility of significant and even catastrophic damage to the climate system from Norway. JAI encourages Norway to consider such expansion plans within the framework of the “no-harm” principle as well as the impact such expansion may have on the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment, and the self-determination of climate-vulnerable peoples.
Biodiversity
17. Norway has diverse land and marine ecosystems, which are under threat of irreversible change due to rising temperatures and associated ocean acidification. Over 20% of the country’s species were deemed to be at risk of extinction as of 2021.[25] Beyond being inherently valuable, this biodiversity undergirds the country’s economic and social stability. Norway must do more to protect its biodiversity consistent, with the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment.
Implications of Climate Change for Human Rights
18. Climate change disproportionately affects marginalized groups and failure to mitigate may expose Norway’s government to litigation. In Daniel Billy et al. vs. Australia, the UN Human Rights Committee held that government inaction to implement climate adaptation measures could constitute violations of fundamental rights under the ICCPR.[26] The petitioners, members of an indigenous minority group of the Torres Strait Islands, alleged breaches of Articles 6 (right to life), 17 (protection from arbitrary interference), 24(1) (protection of children), and 27 (right to culture). This precedent could expose Norway’s government to increased international litigation and liability if further mitigation actions are not taken.
19. Climate change impinges upon Norwegians’ ICCPR Article 1 right to self-determination. When the government makes the decision to expand fossil fuel production, thereby contributing to global emissions and climate change, it does so without the consent of the vast majority of individuals impacted by its effects. While it would of course be impractical, and likely impossible, to receive such individualized consent for policy decisions, it is important to recognize the impact that these decisions have on the lives of every Norwegian and their ability to pursue their economic, cultural, and social development pursuant to the right of self-determination.
20. Sea level rise due to climate change is likely to erode coastlines in the coming years and decades, threatening Norwegians’ right to safety and shelter. Per the IPCC, warming oceans and melting glaciers are predicted to bolster mean sea levels by ~0.5 meters by 2100.[27] This rise threatens Norway’s coastal cities and the lives and livelihoods of those living there.
21. An increase in the use of clean energy production technologies may harm ecosystems upon which Norwegians depend for food security, economic, and cultural uses. These risks should not be used as reasons to curtail the use of these beneficial technologies; however, the government should evaluate and limit the potential impacts, while offering support programs for affected communities, consistent with the obligations imposed by the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment.
22. Climate change, exacerbated in part by fossil fuels produced in Norway, will drive a rise in forced displacement around the world. Multiple Pacific Small Island Developing States have already lost land due to rising sea levels and risk being completely submerged in the coming decades.[28] Other countries, such as Somalia, Yemen, and Sudan, are already experiencing an uptick in climate-exacerbated conflicts that are displacing people internally and internationally.[29]
Recommendations
23. Develop a national sustainable building plan and standards, including targeted subsidization, to induce the development of zero-energy buildings. Encouraging the adoption of building technologies and techniques—such as passive heating/cooling, 3D printing, low-carbon concrete, green retrofitting, and deconstruction—can help to reduce the country’s number one (electricity and heat) and number eight (buildings) emission contributors.[30]
24. Introduce new methods of regulation to increase transparency of corporate operations and emissions. One such method could include recommending or requiring the adoption the E-liability approach to carbon accounting, which involves applying value-added financial accounting principles to track carbon emissions of products from “cradle-to-gate.”[31] E-liability differs from carbon accounting “standards,” such as the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, insofar as it establishes baseline principles that help reduce the ‘double-counting’ of emissions, support real-time tracking of emissions throughout supply chains, and thereby enable enhanced corporate and regulatory climate decision-making.
25. Evaluate and mitigate the impact of new clean energy projects—including, but not limited to, tidal, hydro, and wind generation—on the surrounding ecosystems and peoples, and in a manner consistent with human rights obligations. As but one example, some groups of the Sámi people depend on reindeer herding, which is disrupted by on-land wind farms.
26. Continue to support the successful transportation electrification subsidization initiatives, including programs focused on increasing the adoption of electric consumer vehicles (e.g., cars, bikes), commercial vehicles (e.g., trucks, tractors), and mass-transit vehicles (e.g., ferries, airplanes, trains).
27. Adopt more ambitious policies for reducing economic dependence on fossil fuel extraction and exportation.These may include limiting and canceling offshore exploration, imposing greater carbon taxes on exported fuel, increasing investment in clean energy projects, and more. Simply put, Norway’s exploitation of fossil fuels for its economic development is not compatible with the “no-harm” rule, the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment, and the right of self-determination of peoples on account of the significant or even catastrophic damage to the climate system and impacted ecosystems from such exploitation.
28. Expand work within the Department for Climate Change’s Section for Finance and Development to regularly evaluate, recommend, and implement initiatives to support vulnerable countries and peoples impacted by climate change globally. Such an effort could set a leading example internationally for how greater developed countries can redress some of the harms caused by their fossil fuel-based development. As part of this work, Norway should continue to accept and support the integration of refugees and migrant laborers.
[1] “Human Development Index (HDI),” UNDP Human Development Reports, July 17, 2023, https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI.
[2] “Norway: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report,” Freedom House, 2023, https://freedomhouse.org/country/norway/freedom-world/2023.
[3] “Mapped: Fossil Fuel Production by Country,” World Economic Forum, June 19, 2019, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/06/mapped-fossil-fuel-production-by-country/.
[4] Hannah Ritchie and Pablo Rosado, “Fossil Fuels,” Our World in Data, October 2, 2022, https://ourworldindata.org/fossil-fuels.
[5] “Climate Change Overview, Country Summary: Norway,” Climate Change Knowledge Portal for Development Practitioners and Policy Makers, 2021, https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/norway#:~:text=Norway%20is%20vulnerable%20to%20the,level%20rise%2C%20and%20ocean%20acidification.
[6] rep., National Report Submitted in Accordance with Paragraph 5 of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 16/21: Norway(United Nations Human Rights Council, February 13, 2019), https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/upr/no-index.
[7] “View the Ratification Status by Country or by Treaty,” UN Treaty Body Database, 2023, https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=129&Lang=EN.
[8] “Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,” United Nations Climate Change, 2023, https://unfccc.int/process/parties-non-party-stakeholders/parties-convention-and-observer-states.
[9] Id.
[10] “International Standards: Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,” United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, 2023, https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-indigenous-peoples/international-standards.
[11] Ian Fry, rep., Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in the Context of Climate Change (United Nations General Assembly, July 26, 2023), https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/a77226-promotion-and-protection-human-rights-context-climate-change.
[12] Id.
[13] Olof Björnsson, “Complaints That Aker BP and Aker ASA Did Not Adhere to the OECD Guidelines Accepted by the NCP,” Swedwatch, February 27, 2023, https://swedwatch.org/hogrisk-och-konflikt-2/complaints-that-aker-bp-and-aker-asa-did-not-adhere-to-the-oecd-guidelines-accepted-by-the-ncp/.
[14] “Norway 2022,” Amnesty International, 2023, https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/europe-and-central-asia/norway/report-norway/.
[15] “Skills and Labour Market Integration of Immigrants and Their Children in Norway: 6. Integration of Refugees from Ukraine in Norway,” OECD iLibrary, 2023, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/103b3ecc-en/index.html?itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fcomponent%2F103b3ecc-en.
[16] Jasper Johnston, “The European Migrant Crisis: Psychology, Conflict, and Intergroup Relations,” Collections at UNU, October 15, 2018, https://collections.unu.edu/view/UNU:6654.
[17] Merete Berg Nesset et al., “Intimate Partner Violence during Covid-19 Lockdown in Norway: The Increase of Police Reports,” BMC Public Health 21, no. 1 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12408-x.
[18] Emissions to Air,” Statistics Norway, June 8, 2023, https://www.ssb.no/en/natur-og-miljo/forurensning-og-klima/statistikk/utslipp-til-luft.
[19] Hannah Ritchie and Max Rosner, “Norway: CO2 Country Profile,” Our World in Data, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/co2/country/norway.
[20] “Norway 2022 Energy Policy Review: Executive Summary,” International Energy Agency, accessed November 25, 2023, https://www.iea.org/reports/norway-2022/executive-summary.
[21] Hannah Ritchie and Max Rosner, “Norway: Energy Country Profile,” Our World in Data, 2022, https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/norway.
[22] “Mapped: Fossil Fuel Production by Country,” World Economic Forum, June 19, 2019, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/06/mapped-fossil-fuel-production-by-country/.
[23] Hannah Ritchie and Pablo Rosado, “Fossil Fuels,” Our World in Data, October 2, 2022, https://ourworldindata.org/fossil-fuels.
[24] Nerijus Adomaitis and Gwladys Fouche, “Norway Plans to Offer Record Number of Arctic Oil, Gas Exploration Blocks,” Reuters, January 24, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/norway-offers-up-92-new-oil-gas-exploration-blocks-2023-01-24/.
[25] “Norwegian Red List for Species,” Artsdatabanken, 2021, https://www.biodiversity.no/Pages/135380/Norwegian_Red_List_for_Species#:~:text=The%20Norwegian%20Red%20List%20for,Conservation%20of%20Nature%20(IUCN).
[26] “CCPR/C/135/D/3624/2019.” UN Treaty Body Database, September 22, 2022. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2FC%2F135%2FD%2F3624%2F2019&Lang=en.
[27] Michael Oppenheimer and Bruce C Glavovic, “Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities,” IPCC, 2019, https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-4-sea-level-rise-and-implications-for-low-lying-islands-coasts-and-communities/.
[28] “Climate Change-Induced Sea-Level Rise Direct Threat to Millions around World, Secretary-General Tells Security Council,” United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, February 14, 2023, https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15199.doc.htm.
[29] “With Climate Crisis Generating Growing Threats to Global Peace, Security Council Must Ramp Up Efforts, Lessen Risk of Conflicts, Speakers Stress in Open Debate,” United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, June 13, 2023, https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15318.doc.htm.
[30] Hannah Ritchie and Max Rosner, “Norway: CO2 Country Profile,” Our World in Data, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/co2/country/norway.
[31] Robert S Kaplan and Karthik Ramanna, “Accounting for Climate Change,” Harvard Business Review (Harvard Business School Publishing, November 2021), https://hbr.org/2021/11/accounting-for-climate-change.