Ethiopia
I. Summary of conclusions
1. We commend Ethiopia for establishing the 10 Years National Development Plan (10YNDP) which includes development targets that will help reduce extreme poverty in the country to 7% by 2030, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development.[1]
2. We acknowledge Ethiopia’s leadership in climate action, being a signatory of the Paris Agreement and being the first Least Developed Country to submit an ambitious set of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the UNFCCC. Ethiopia’s commitment to climate mitigation and adaptation is evident in the CRGE strategy that aims to reduce the country’s emissions by 64% by 2030.[2]
3. We express concern about the widespread impacts of climate change on various sectors of the country, including water tourism, and forestry which have consequent impacts on human rights including economic, cultural, and social rights. Despite Ethiopia having established climate change and environmental policies, there remains a need for more effective implementation of these policies and for the general population’s awareness of their environmental rights. Moreover, the high cost of technology presents a significant barrier to farmers, underscoring the need for accessible solutions within the country’s climate adaptation and resilience policies.[3]
4. We express concern over the ongoing humanitarian impacts of the civil war, despite its conclusion in 2022. Since the end of the conflict in 2022, thousands of people have died, and the humanitarian crisis has worsened with food shortages and restricted humanitarian aid.[4] The war led to the most severe starvation crisis with an estimated 900,000 Ethiopians being affected and 1.8 million on the brink of starvation.[5]
II. Ethiopia’s Contribution to Climate Change and the Impact It Has as on the Country
5. Ethiopia contributes less than 0.1 percent of emissions to climate change, yet it is experiencing significant adverse impacts from climate change, including weather changes, declining rainfall, and adverse impacts on agriculture.[6] Agriculture in Ethiopia forms 42% of the GDP and 85% of employment[7] and will be heavily impacted by climate change. Other key sectors include livestock, human health, and water.[8]
6. The temperature in Ethiopia increased at about 0.2 degree Celsius per decade with minimum temperatures having increased 0.4 degree Celsius per decade and it is predicted that the temperature will likely increase in the next few years.[9] Increased drought, heavy rains and floods—all anticipated climate change impacts—will further impact food security due to low agricultural production, lack of availability of clean water, increased malaria cases, and infrastructure damage.[10]
7. Ethiopia may have claims in international law for the impacts of climate change that it currently faces on account of such impacts being caused by the emissions conduct of high-developed, high-emissions States. For example, other States may have obligations to protect and promote the self-determination of peoples in Ethiopia, including protecting their resources and means of subsistence as well as the territorial integrity of Ethiopia. High-developed, high-emissions States may be in breach of the “no-harm” principle or the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment on account of their emissions now causing significant or catastrophic damage to human rights in Ethiopia. We therefore encourage Ethiopia to explore what legal remedies are available to it in order to protect the human rights of its people from anticipated climate change impacts that will only get worse until global warming is halted.
III. Impact of the civil war on the environment:
8. The conflict that drives deforestation in Tigray should be considered by the government of Ethiopia. The recovery of the people and the environment after the 2020 conflict should be a priority as trees and other natural resources have played a significant role in decreasing the impact of the conflict.[11]
9. We recommend that Ethiopia conduct recovery strategies in the region to protect the woody vegetationby providing civilians with alternative energy sources. Due to the blockade during the conflict, civilians may have increased their use of firewood due to limited fuel and electricity.[12] It is further recommended that indigenous shrubs be preserved.
10. Ethiopia should focus on post-conflict reconstruction in conflict affected regions. People who have lost their homes are now utilizing timber to construct houses or recently destroyed buildings, intensifying the deforestation process.
IV. Existing Environmental and Climate Obligations
11. Ethiopia ratified the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on 31 May 1994, the Kyoto Protocol on the 21st of February 2005, and the Paris Agreement on 9 March 2017.[13]
12. We commend Ethiopia for its commitment to a number of other environmental treaties such as the Vienna Convention for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, the Montreal Protocol on Substance that Deplete the Ozone Layer, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries experiencing Serious drought, the Basel Convention on the Control of the Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, and the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa.[14]
13. As a party to the UNFCCC, Ethiopia has submitted its Initial National Communication (SNC), in 2001, its Second National Communication (SNC) in 2015 and an updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) in 2021.[15]
14. We commend Ethiopia for including in its Constitution the protection of environmental rights. Article 44 of the constitution elaborates on the right to a clean and healthy environment and the state’s obligation to provide compensation to individuals who are displaced due to state actions.[16]
15. Ethiopia has not included environmental protection provisions in the bilateral investment treaties concluded to encourage foreign investment. We encourage Ethiopia to consider including environmental protection provisions in such treaties in order to bring such treaties into greater compliance with Ethiopia’s international and national obligations with respect to the environment.[17]
16. The government of Ethiopia continued to impose restriction on humanitarian aid, allegedly using starvation as a method of warfare. In March 2022 a number of aid convoys were allowed into the region, but the delivery was completely stopped in August until November, when the conflict ended.[18] We encourage Ethiopia to explore such allegations and provide full reparation to the extent applicable international law was breached.
17. We encourage Ethiopia to implement environmental rights through greater regulatory efforts.
V. Current Environmental and Climate Frameworks in Place
18. Under Ethiopia’s updated Nationally Determined Contribution, the government announced to reduce emissions by 68% by 2030, reforest and retore up to 15 million hectares and carry out 40 adaptation interventions across agriculture, water, forestry, transport and more.[19]
19. Ethiopia has enacted various policies to mitigate the risk of climate change within the region. In 2011, the government launched the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy. Through the CRGE, Ethiopia aims to develop a climate-resilient green economy by 2050 with no net increase in greenhouse gas emissions.[20]
20. In 2021 Ethiopia released its Ten-Year Development Plan: A Pathway to Prosperity (2021 – 2030) which has the overall goal of economic, social, and institutional development in the country.[21]
21. The Ten-Year Plan considers the environmental impact on Ethiopia’s sectors. The plan focuses on sustainable development and protecting the country’s natural environment and biodiversity resources.[22] The targets laid down include the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, increasing coverage of protection against illicit activities in wildlife habitats from 62% to 92%, increasing national forest coverage from 15.5% to 30% and increasing the coverage of wildlife habitats from the present area of 8.6% to 14%.[23]
22. Ethiopia’s power grid has been completely decarbonized. Hydropower and a growing share of wind power is the major source of electricity in the country.[24] JAI commends Ethiopia for this achievement.
VI. Agriculture and Food Security in the Context of Climate Change Impacts
23. Due to fluctuations in rainfall, 10% of the population in Ethiopia faces chronic food insecurity. Even in years where there is average rainfall some households have to rely on food assistance.[25]
24. The population of Ethiopia is likely to increase to 129 million by 2030.[26] There is increased pressure to produce and utilize natural resources, but due to the weather changes in the region it will be significantly difficult to meet the food demands of the population.[27]
25. We encourage Ethiopia to consider measures to protect the food security of its peoples, particularly in light of anticipated climate change impacts.
26. In 2023 Ethiopia’s Global Hunger Index Score was 26.2 (“serious”).[28] Changes in temperature are likely to place food security at risk. Drought, water scarcity, flooding, and displacement will further impact the agricultural production of the country leading to food insecurity and undernutrition.[29] The groups most at risk of undernutrition are children under the age of five years old, women, and growing girls. We encourage Ethiopia to take greater steps to protect the human right to food and the means of subsistence of its peoples.
VII. The Impacts from Climate Change on Human Health
27. As a result of poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water, there are a variety of waterborne diseases that affect the Ethiopian people. Diarrheal diseases, intestinal parasitic infection, and trachoma are the prevailing health problems in the country and the top leading causes of morbidities.[30]
28. Other health concerns that should be looked at in relation to climate change include malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever.[31] Due to changes in timing and duration of rainy seasons, people working in the agriculture fields will have increased exposure to vector-borne diseases such as malaria.
29. Ethiopia should focus on tackling vector-borne diseases that result from changing climate conditions.Yellow fever has re-emerged in Ethiopia since 2013. Chikungunya is another mosquito-borne disease of growing concern and Leishmaniasis is also a vector-borne disease that is likely to spread into other areas of the country due to climate change.[32]
30. Due to anticipated climate displacement, Ethiopia should focus on tackling communicable diseases. As communities are displaced because of climate change induced disasters, the risk of communicable diseases increases. In the case of Ethiopia, meningitis has historically affected the Southern region of the country, including the areas of Amhara, Gambella, Oromia and Tigray. Measles is another communicable disease that has been one of the primary cases of infant mortality in Ethiopia.[33].
VIII. The Impact of Climate Change on Living Standards
31. The spread of communicable diseases in tandem with climate change impacts has impacts on the rights to health and the right to life.
32. Due to increased temperature during all seasons, the number of heat-related deaths is bound to increase amongst the elderly, children, outdoor workers, and women. Pregnant women are at a high risk of heat stress and exhaustion, and lactating women are at risk of dehydration.[34]
33. The intensifying climate situation has the potential to displace a significant number of Ethiopians in the years ahead.[35] We therefore recommend that Ethiopia draft policies to manage human mobility from overlapping and cascading impacts of droughts, displacement, and the risk multiplier of climate change, particularly in the context of dwindling or scarce resources.
34. Displacement caused by climate change is a consequence of the conduct of high-developed, high-emissions States and their significant damage to the climate system. We therefore encourage Ethiopia to investigate possible legal remedies it may have as a result of climate change-induced displacement, and the rights of its peoples to reparation for such displacement consistent with the principles of State responsibility.
35. To the extent that Ethiopia enters into agreements with other States with respect to mobility of its peoples in response to climate change impacts, Ethiopia must ensure that such agreements are consistent with its human rights obligations and other principles of international law, including that of non-refoulement. We also caution Ethiopia to be wary of unconscionable terms in any such agreements with other States, or which may constitute kind of a “climate duress” placed on Ethiopia because of climate change impacts.
36. To the extent that displacement results from climate change-induced loss of territory and resources, we encourage Ethiopia to consider such impacts as possible infringements of Ethiopia’s self-determination caused by the actions of high-developed, high-emissions States, and to consider legal remedies premised in Ethiopia’s right of self-determination.
37. Future displacement is also likely to have an impact on gender-based violence, as well as on sexual and reproductive health as well. Therefore, we encourage Ethiopia to protect the human rights of vulnerable peoples and communities, including on axes of gender, as a result of displacement. Youth are also particularly vulnerable in conditions of displacement.
IX. Recommendations
38. Ethiopia should consider environmental impacts while negotiating investment treaties with other states.[36] Potential threats to the environment should be considered while considering foreign investment as many of these policies impact the people within the country.
39. Access to justice should be improved, particularly for environmental issues. Many people within the city do not take their environmental concerns to court and complaints never reach a court of law due to delayed justice.[37]We therefore recommend further implementation of environmental rights.
40. Ethiopia should increase knowledge and awareness regarding the impact of climate change. Poor implementation of laws and regulations in Ethiopia is also due to lack of awareness amongst the general population, which includes policymakers and government officials. Current frameworks are a result of international pressure and external donors.[38]
41. Healthcare infrastructure should be strengthened. The health system should be designed to consider anticipatory actions for health when it comes to vector-borne diseases. There are limited forecast-based actions and preventative mechanisms in areas considered risky.[39] The system must be strengthened to also meet the increasing impacts of climate change.
42. Ethiopia should consider its positions, its human rights policies, and its legal rights under international law with respect to displacement, migration, and mobility caused by climate change, particularly as against high-emissions States that are responsible for significant or catastrophic harm to Ethiopia.
[1] World Bank Group, Country and Climate Development Report (2024) https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/715c3822-4a9d-437f-8b3c-89585f7fe3b0/content
[2] Ethiopia’s Long-Term Low Emission and Climate Resilient Development Strategy (2020-2050) https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ETHIOPIA_%20LONG%20TERM%20LOW%20EMISSION%20AND%20CLIMATE%20RESILIENT%20DEVELOPMENT%20STRATEGY.pdf
[3] World Bank Group, Climate Change knowledge Portal for Development and Practitioners and Policy Makers. [Accessed here]
https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ethiopia/vulnerability
and Maereg Tafere, Jana Olivier, and Maarten Jordaan, ‘Climate Change Adaptation: Opportunities and Challenges from Two Communities in Ethiopia’ (2013), Journal of Environment and Earth Science, Vol. 3, No.12. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maereg-Tafere-2/publication/303975264_Climate_Change_Adaptation_Opportunities_and_Challenges_from_Two_Communities_in_Ethiopia/links/57613b2a08ae227f4a40fab0/Climate-Change-Adaptation-Opportunities-and-Challenges-from-Two-Communities-in-Ethiopia.pdf
[4] Climate Action Tracker, Ethiopia Policies and Actions [Accessed here] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/ethiopia/policies-action/#:~:text=Policies%20%26%20action,-Summary
[5] Amnesty International, Country Report. [Accessed here]
https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/east-africa-the-horn-and-great-lakes/ethiopia/report-ethiopia/
[6] Climatelinks. Where We Work, Ethiopia. https://www.climatelinks.org/countries/ethiopia [Accessed here]
[7] Declan Conway, E. Lisa F. Schipper, “Adaptation to climate change in Africa: Challenges and opportunities identified from Ethiopia”, Global Environmental Change Journal (2010), p.227. [Accessed here]
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lisa-Schipper/publication/232406636_Adaptation_to_Climate_Change_in_Africa_Challenges_and_Opportunities_Identified_from_Ethiopia/links/571a5e9f08aee3ddc568f57e/Adaptation-to-Climate-Change-in-Africa-Challenges-and-Opportunities-Identified-from-Ethiopia.pdf
[8] Climatelinks. Where We Work, Ethiopia. https://www.climatelinks.org/countries/ethiopia [Accessed here]
[9] Marius Keller, “Climate Risks and Development Projects, Assessment Report for a Community-Level Project in Guduru, Oromiya, Ethiopia.” (2009), p.4 [Accessed here]
https://www.iisd.org/cristaltool/documents/BFA-Ethiopia-Assessment-Report-Eng.pdf
[10] Marius Keller, “Climate Risks and Development Projects, Assessment Report for a Community-Level Project in Guduru, Oromiya, Ethiopia.” (2009), p.5 [Accessed here]
https://www.iisd.org/cristaltool/documents/BFA-Ethiopia-Assessment-Report-Eng.pdf
[11] Conflict and Environment Observatory, Report: The war in Tigray is undermining its environmental recovery (2022) [Accessed here] https://ceobs.org/the-war-in-tigray-is-undermining-its-environmental-recovery/#:~:text=The%20conflict%20has%20so%20far,of%20the%202021%20dry%20season.
[12] Conflict and Environment Observatory, Report: The war in Tigray is undermining its environmental recovery (2022) [Accessed here] https://ceobs.org/the-war-in-tigray-is-undermining-its-environmental-recovery/#:~:text=The%20conflict%20has%20so%20far,of%20the%202021%20dry%20season.
[13] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change website. [Accessed here] https://unfccc.int/node/61062
[14] Ayalew Abate, “Ethiopia’s Bilateral Investment Treaties and Environmental Protection; The Need of Re-Negotiation for Corporate Responsibility” (2021) [Accessed here]
https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/gj-2020-0067/html?lang=en#:~:text=At%20the%20international%20level%2C%20Ethiopia,to%20over%20seven%20environmental%20agreements.
[15] Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (2021)
[16] Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 44.
[17] Marius Keller, “Climate Risks and Development Projects, Assessment Report for a Community-Level Project in Guduru, Oromiya, Ethiopia.” (2009), p.4 [Accessed here] https://www.iisd.org/cristaltool/documents/BFA-Ethiopia-Assessment-Report-Eng.pdf
[18] Amnesty International, Country Report. [Accessed here] https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/east-africa-the-horn-and-great-lakes/ethiopia/report-ethiopia/
[19] USAID, Ethiopia Climate Change Country Profile [Accessed here] https://www.usaid.gov/climate/country-profiles/ethiopia#:~:text=Government%20of%20Ethiopia%20Climate%20Priorities,by%2068%20percent%20by%202030
[20] Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy, green economy strategy (2011), p.iv [Accessed here] https://www.ldc-climate.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/crge-strategy.pdf
[21] United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization database [Accessed here] https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC215704/#:~:text=The%20key%20strategic%20pillars%20are,7)%20Institutional%20Transformation%2C%208)
[22] Ethiopia’s Ten Years Development Plan, A pathway to prosperity (2021-2023), p.73. [Accessed here] https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eth215704.pdf
[23] Ethiopia’s Ten Years Development Plan, A pathway to prosperity (2021-2023), p.73. [Accessed here] https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eth215704.pdf
[24] Climate Action Tracker, Ethiopia Policies and Actions [Accessed here] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/ethiopia/policies-action/#:~:text=Policies%20%26%20action,-Summary
[25] Climatelinks. Where We Work, Ethiopia. https://www.climatelinks.org/countries/ethiopia [Accessed here]
[26] Solomon, Simane, Zaitchik, “The Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Production in Ethiopia: Application of a Dynamic Computable General Equilibrium Model”, American Journal of Climate Change (2021). [Accessed here] https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=107791
[27] Solomon, Simane, Zaitchik, “The Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Production in Ethiopia: Application of a Dynamic Computable General Equilibrium Model”, American Journal of Climate Change (2021). [Accessed here] https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=107791
[28] Global Hunger Index 2023: Ethiopia [Accessed here] https://www.globalhungerindex.org/pdf/en/2023/Ethiopia.pdf
[29] World Health Organization, “Climate Change and Health – Ethiopia”, (2016), p.18 [Accessed here] https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/climate-change/ethiopia-health-sector.pdf?sfvrsn=4380516f_3
[30] World Health Organization, “Climate Change and Health – Ethiopia”, (2016), p.5 [Accessed here] https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/climate-change/ethiopia-health-sector.pdf?sfvrsn=4380516f_3
[31] World Health Organization, “Climate Change and Health – Ethiopia”, (2016), p.6 [Accessed here] https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/climate-change/ethiopia-health-sector.pdf?sfvrsn=4380516f_3
[32] International Federation of Red Cross, Climate Centre, “Climate Change Impacts on Health: Ethiopia Assessment”, p.15 [Accessed here] https://www.climatecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/RCRC_IFRC-Country-assessments-Ethiopia-Final3.pdf
[33] International Federation of Red Cross, Climate Centre, “Climate Change Impacts on Health: Ethiopia Assessment”, p.16 [Accessed here] https://www.climatecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/RCRC_IFRC-Country-assessments-Ethiopia-Final3.pdf
[34] International Federation of Red Cross, Climate Centre, “Climate Change Impacts on Health: Ethiopia Assessment”, p.6 [Accessed here] https://www.climatecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/RCRC_IFRC-Country-assessments-Ethiopia-Final3.pdf
[35] World Health Organization, “Climate Change and Health – Ethiopia”, (2016), p.20 [Accessed here] https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/climate-change/ethiopia-health-sector.pdf?sfvrsn=4380516f_3
[36] Desalegn Amsalu, “Environmental Rights in Ethiopia: Shifting from Theory to Practical Realization”, p.63. Many individuals living in the capital have complained about a horrendous stench coming from industrial areas in the city. [Accessed here] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330363541_Environmental_rights_in_Ethiopia_Shifting_from_theory_to_practical_realization
[37] Desalegn Amsalu, “Environmental Rights in Ethiopia: Shifting from Theory to Practical Realization”, p.56. Many individuals living in the capital have complained about a horrendous stench coming from industrial areas in the city. [Accessed here] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330363541_Environmental_rights_in_Ethiopia_Shifting_from_theory_to_practical_realization
[38] Desalegn Amsalu, “Environmental Rights in Ethiopia: Shifting from Theory to Practical Realization”, p.59. Many individuals living in the capital have complained about a horrendous stench coming from industrial areas in the city. [Accessed here] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330363541_Environmental_rights_in_Ethiopia_Shifting_from_theory_to_practical_realization
[39] Desalegn Amsalu, “Environmental Rights in Ethiopia: Shifting from Theory to Practical Realization”, p.59. Many individuals living in the capital have complained about a horrendous stench coming from industrial areas in the city. [Accessed here] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330363541_Environmental_rights_in_Ethiopia_Shifting_from_theory_to_practical_realization
Link on the United Nations System
Universal Periodic Review Fourth Cycle - Ethiopia - Reference Documents on the United Nations System