Gambia
I. Introduction
1. The Gambia, the smallest country on the African mainland, is grappling with the severe impacts of climate change. With a population of approximately 2.4 million people and an economy heavily reliant on agriculture, tourism, and fisheries, the Gambia is particularly vulnerable to these changes.
2. The Gambia has not materially contributed to climate change. Indeed, the country is “a small emitter, contributing less than 0.01 percent to the global CO2e emissions.”[1] Therefore, these human rights impacts can be attributed to the conduct of high-emissions States, whose emissions conduct is responsible for these changes to the climate in The Gambia.
II. Agriculture
3. Agriculture is the backbone of The Gambia’s economy, employing about 75% of the workforce. However, climate change poses a serious threat to this sector. The country experiences a monsoon season from June to October, which is crucial for agricultural activities. Changes in rainfall patterns, such as delayed onset of rains, shorter rainy seasons, and more intense but less frequent rainfall events, have already begun to affect crop yields.[2]
4. Prolonged dry spells can lead to crop failure, reducing the availability of these essential foods and threatening food security.[3] For instance, staple crops like rice, maize, millet, and groundnuts are susceptible to changes in temperature and precipitation.
5. Additionally, extreme weather events, such as floods, can destroy crops and farmland, further exacerbating food shortages.
6. Soil degradation and desertification are exacerbated by climate change, particularly in the northern and eastern parts of the country, which in turn has negative consequences for agriculture. Increased temperatures and reduced rainfall lead to the loss of soil moisture, making the land less fertile and more prone to erosion. This process is compounded by unsustainable farming practices, deforestation, and overgrazing, which further deplete the soil's nutrient content and its ability to retain water.[4]
7. Livestock farming, another vital component of The Gambia's agricultural sector, is also affected by climate change. Increased temperatures and changing precipitation patterns influence the availability of water and forage for livestock. Prolonged dry spells can lead to water shortages and reduced pasture quality, negatively impacting livestock health and productivity. Heat stress can reduce animal fertility, milk production, and weight gain, leading to economic losses for farmers.[5]
8. As with crop production and desertification, impacts on livestock farming from climate change impacts will have human rights implications. The human rights to adequate food and the right of self-determination are particularly impacted.
9. The right to food and the right of self-determination are protected, inter alia, by Articles 11 and 1 of the ICESCR, respectively. Article 2 of the ICESCR imposes a positive obligation on the States Parties to “take steps, individually and through international assistance and co-operation, especially economic and technical, to the maximum of its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measures.” The Gambia has not materially contributed to the planetary climate crisis. We therefore encourage The Gambia to consider how the conduct of high-emissions States may be infringing upon protected human rights in The Gambia, particularly economic, social, and cultural rights.
10. We invite The Gambia to consider how impacts on the right to food and the right of self-determination described herein may be forms of loss and damage, entitling The Gambia to reparation under the UNFCCC climate regime, or under general rules of international law.
11. We also encourage The Gambia to take a human rights approach in its own adaptation programs, and to ensure that the right to adequate food and the right of self-determination are fundamental components of adaptation strategies.
III. Water Resources
12. Water resources in The Gambia are highly susceptible to climate change. The country relies heavily on the Gambia River, which runs through the entire length of the country, for its freshwater supply. However, changing rainfall patterns and increased evaporation rates are threatening its flow. Reduced river flow can lead to water shortages, affecting both drinking water availability and irrigation for agriculture.[6]
13. Moreover, the variability in rainfall patterns has led to frequent droughts and floods. During drought periods, the water levels in rivers and reservoirs drop significantly, limiting the availability of water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use. Conversely, during periods of intense rainfall, flooding can contaminate water sources with pollutants, further reducing water quality and posing health risks to the population.[7]
14. Rising sea levels, another consequence of climate change, lead to the salinization of groundwater. This is particularly problematic for coastal communities that rely on shallow aquifers for drinking water and agriculture. Salinization reduces the quality of groundwater, making it unsuitable for consumption and irrigation, and forcing communities to find alternative, often more expensive, water sources.[8]
15. In coastal areas, seawater intrusion into freshwater aquifers has been observed. This process not only affects drinking water supplies but also agricultural activities, as saline water can damage crops and reduce soil fertility. The economic costs of dealing with salinization, such as investing in desalination technologies or transporting freshwater from other regions, can be substantial.[9]
16. Saltwater intrusion and the loss of water resources has significant impacts on the right to water and the right of self-determination. The water resources of The Gambia are protected by the principle of permeant sovereignty over natural resources as well as paragraph 2 of article 1 of the ICCPR and ICESCR, which prohibits a people being denied the means of its subsistence.
17. We therefore encourage the Gambia to consider how these human rights are being impacted by the conduct of high-emissions States. We also encourage The Gambia to center the protection of human rights in adaptation measures.
IV. Coastal Erosion and Sea-Level Rise
18. The Gambia’s coastline, stretching for about 80 kilometers, is extremely vulnerable to the effects of rising sea levels. For example, the capital city, Banjul, which is located on an island at the mouth of the Gambia River, is at risk of being submerged due to its low elevation. Rising sea levels also threaten mangrove forests, which play a crucial role in protecting the coastline from erosion and providing habitats for diverse marine life.[10]
19. Erosion has already led to the loss of valuable land, including agricultural land and human settlements. Coastal erosion can undermine buildings, roads, and other infrastructure, leading to costly repairs and reconstruction efforts. Furthermore, the destruction of mangrove forests reduces natural coastal defenses, making the area more susceptible to future erosion and storm surges.[11]
20. The loss of territory from climate change impacts is a direct impact on the right of self-determination of the peoples of The Gambia. Territorial integrity is a component of the general principle of self-determination of peoples, as affirmed in the Helsinki Final Act and in related principles of international law such as the inviolability of borders and the territorial integrity of States. Loss of territory from climate change could also produce shifting maritime baselines, leading to a loss of resources in The Gambia’s exclusive economic zone to the extent that marine territories become part of the high seas.
21. As with other climate change impacts, The Gambia is not responsible for these changes and we encourage The Gambia to consider how its right of self-determination has been impacted, infringed, and/or breached by the conduct of high emissions States. Further, we encourage The Gambia to consider what kinds of reparation would be appropriate for such breaches. We also encourage The Gambia to consider whether territorial loss constitutes a form of loss and damage under the UNFCCC climate regime or under general international law.
22. Coastal erosion and the degradation of beaches will also impact tourism, a critical economic sector. Resorts and other tourism-related infrastructure located along the coast are at risk of damage or destruction, which can have long-term economic impacts.[12] Efforts to combat erosion, such as beach nourishment and the construction of sea walls, are expensive and may provide only temporary relief.[13]
23. Loss of tourism impacts the ability of The Gambia to stay economically resilient, a dimension of its economic self-determination. We encourage The Gambia to consider how impacts on its economy from climate change impacts are also an infringement of its economic self-determination and its ability to develop.
V. Health
24. Health-related impacts from climate change impact the right to health and the right to life. In addressing such diseases and illnesses, we encourage The Gambia to take a human rights approach.
25. Climate change influences the distribution and prevalence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Warmer temperatures and increased rainfall create ideal conditions for the breeding of mosquitoes, the primary vectors of these diseases. As a result, the incidence of malaria, which is already a major health issue in The Gambia, could increase, putting additional strain on the country’s healthcare system.[14]
26. Rising temperatures can lead to an increase in heat-related illnesses, including heatstroke and dehydration. Vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, children, and those with preexisting health conditions, are particularly at risk. Furthermore, high temperatures can exacerbate existing health conditions, such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.[15]
27. Extended periods of high temperatures can lead to increased mortality and morbidity rates. Heatwaves, which are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change, pose significant health risks. They can overwhelm healthcare facilities, particularly in rural areas where medical services are already limited.
28. The increased frequency and intensity of floods can lead to the contamination of water sources with pathogens, increasing the risk of water-borne diseases such as cholera and dysentery. Floodwaters can carry sewage, industrial waste, and other pollutants into drinking water supplies, creating severe public health risks.[16]
29. Poor sanitation infrastructure in many parts of The Gambia exacerbates the spread of water-borne diseases. During flood events, latrines and septic systems can overflow, contaminating water sources. This can lead to outbreaks of gastrointestinal illnesses, particularly in densely populated urban areas and informal settlements.[17]
30. We encourage The Gambia to consider initiatives designed to protect the right to health as an essential component of climate change adaptation.
VI. Socio-Economic Impacts
A. Migration and Displacement
31. Climate change-induced environmental degradation and resource scarcity can lead to migration and displacement. Communities affected by coastal erosion, water shortages, and declining agricultural productivity may be forced to relocate in search of better living conditions. This internal displacement can lead to overcrowding in urban areas, putting additional pressure on infrastructure and services.[18]
32. Migration due to climate change can also strain social and economic systems. Displaced populations often face challenges in finding employment, housing, and access to basic services. This can lead to increased poverty and social tensions in receiving areas. Moreover, the loss of productive land and livelihoods can exacerbate inequalities and create new vulnerabilities.[19]
33. Migration and displacement coming from climate change impacts is a threat to the self-determination of The Gambia. First, such displacement will sever the tie between peoples in The Gambia to their territory and resources. Second, displacement will threaten the ability of peoples to continue to stay unified and interconnected as discrete human collectives.
34. This migration and displacement is a consequence of the actions of high-emitter States. We encourage The Gambia to consider how migration and displacement is connected to its self-determination and whether its self-determination has been infringed or breached because of the actions of high-emitter States.
B. Economic Vulnerability
35. The Gambia's economy is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The agriculture and tourism sectors, which are critical for economic stability, are directly affected by changes in climate. Reduced agricultural output and declining tourism revenue can lead to economic instability, increased poverty, and reduced national income. This, in turn, affects the government’s ability to invest in climate adaptation and mitigation measures.
36. Furthermore, damaged infrastructure can disrupt economic activities, leading to additional economic losses.
37. We encourage The Gambia to consider the impacts of climate change on its economic self-determination.
VII. Human Rights-Centric Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies
38. The Gambia has developed several national strategies to address climate change by adopting strategies that still have more room for improvement, especially in further emphasizing a human rights-based approach. The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) outlines priority activities to respond to immediate climate change threats. Key measures include improving water management, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and enhancing coastal protection, all in a bid to promote economic and social rights. There is a need for more human rights-focused approaches to address these increasing climate change-related challenges.[20]
39. We encourage The Gambia to also implement a human rights-based approach in managing water management and sustainable agriculture strategies in the context of climate change. This could include ensuring that vulnerable and marginalized communities have access to such critical resources on the basis of non-discrimination; that such strategies are culturally sensitive to the needs of local populations; and that such strategies also help promote a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment.
40. In implementing measures designed to address sea-level rise and coastal erosion, we encourage The Gambia to ensures that such measures are carefully planned and managed to avoid negative environmental impacts.[21]
41. The transfer of financing and technology from developed countries to The Gambia can play a crucial role in building climate resilience. This includes technologies for renewable energy, climate-resilient agriculture, and early warning systems for extreme weather events. Capacity-building initiatives, such as training programs and workshops, can help local communities and institutions implement and sustain these technologies.[22] We encourage The Gambia to consider such financing and technology transfers as essential components of reparation for damage caused to The Gambia by the conduct of high-emitter States.
VIII. Conclusion
42. Climate change poses a significant threat to The Gambia, affecting various sectors including agriculture, water resources, coastal areas, health, and the economy. Human rights adaptation and mitigation strategies, supported by national policies and international cooperation, are essential for building resilience and protecting the human rights of people in Gambia.
43. Efforts to address climate change in The Gambia must be inclusive and participatory, ensuring that the voices and needs of vulnerable populations are considered, and should center the protection of human rights.
44. By integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches, The Gambia can develop effective and sustainable solutions to combat the impacts of climate change.
45. Continued investment in research, innovation, and capacity-building will be crucial for enhancing resilience and achieving long-term climate goals.
46. The Gambia is not responsible for the changes taking place to its ecosystem and environment, which have come about from the conduct of high emissions States. We therefore encourage The Gambia to consider whether human rights law and related principles of international law provide viable mechanisms of redress for such impacts.
[1] Han, Xuehui, and Koralai Kirabaeva. "Climate Change Vulnerabilities and Strategies: The Gambia", Selected Issues Papers 2024, 005 (2024), A001, accessed Jul 11, 2024, https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400267901.018.A001, 6.
[2] https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/018/2024/005/article-A001-en.xml#:~:text=The%20Gambia%20is%20highly%20vulnerable,losses%20of%20tourism%20and%20fishing.
[3] https://iiasa.ac.at/sites/default/files/2023-04/PB36_Gambia-WEB.pdf, 2.
[4] ibid.
[5] https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Long_Term_Climate_Change_Strategy_of_The_Gambia_Final.pdf, 33.
[6] https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/10046IIED.pdf, 8.
[7] https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/newsevents/news/2024/climate-change-and-water-insecurity-gambia.
[8] Climate Change and Development in the Gambia: Challenges to Ecosystem Goods and Services, https://www.columbia.edu/~msj42/pdfs/ClimateChangeDevelopmentGambia_small.pdf, viii.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Han, and Kirabaeva. "Climate Change Vulnerabilities and Strategies: The Gambia", 2.
[11] https://www.nature.org/media/oceansandcoasts/mangroves-for-coastal-defence.pdf, 16.
[12] Climate Change and Development in the Gambia, viii.
[13] Muhammad Leroy Albert Gomez, Olatundun Janet Adelegan, Joshua Ntajal, Dodou Trawally, “Vulnerability to coastal erosion in The Gambia: Empirical experience from Gunjur,” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 45, 2213.
[14] Mojahed N, Mohammadkhani MA, Mohamadkhani A., “Climate Crises and Developing Vector-Borne Diseases: A Narrative Review,” Iran J Public Health 51(12):2665.
[15] https://today.ucsd.edu/story/7-ways-heat-impacts-health.
[16] Jung, Yong-Ju, Naing Aung Khant, Heejung Kim, and Sim Namkoong. 2023. "Impact of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: Directions towards Sustainability" Water 15, no. 7: 1298.
[17] Omar Jallow, in conversation with author, June 2, 2024.
[18] Climate change, Migration and Displacement, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/MIgration_Report.pdf.
[19]https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/activities/env_degradation/compendium_climate_change.pdf; https://www.unhcr.org/what-we-do/build-better-futures/climate-change-and-displacement.
[20] https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/gam177924.pdf.
[21] https://www.fao.org/4/ag127e/ag127e09.htm.
[22] https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Long_Term_Climate_Change_Strategy_of_The_Gambia_Final.pdf, 60-61.
Link on the United Nations System
Universal Periodic Review Fourth Cycle - Gambia - Reference Documents on the United Nations System