Rwanda
Summary of Conclusions
1. Rwanda has achieved notable progress in economic development and governance, including strong GDP growth, reduced corruption, and improved ease of doing business.[1] However, these advancements coexist with severe and systemic human rights violations, casting doubt on the sustainability of Rwanda’s progress without meaningful reforms.[2]
Background
2. Rwanda is described as one of the least corrupt nations in Africa; it has risen 100 places in the last decade for ease of doing business and is now second on the continent, resulting in robust economic growth and “substantial improvements” in living conditions.[3]
3. Despite Rwanda’s positive steps, significant human rights challenges persist. According to Freedom House, individual people, the media, political opposition members, and civil society organisations face criminal prosecutions, intimidation, or harassment that limit their rights to free expression (including the press), association, and peaceful assembly.[4] Human rights organisations, such as Amnesty International, have documented cases of arbitrary arrest and detention, deaths in custody, and probable enforced disappearances. The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has voiced extreme concern about claims of incarceration, beatings, and mistreatment of street children in transit facilities.[5]
4. Several observers have identified significant rights issues in Rwanda. Extrajudicial killings, government-ordered disappearances, and the torture of dissenters are just a few examples. This has had a chilling effect on freedom of expression and association by perpetuating "a culture of intolerance for dissent," according to Human Rights Watch.[6
5. Freedom of expression is severely restricted. Having been curtailed by decades of limits, the Rwandan media landscape is now one of the poorest in Africa, says Reporters Without Borders, which ranks the country 146 out of 180 on its 2025 press freedom index.[7] Censorship, threats of violence against journalists, and the unlawful detention or prosecution of journalists are among the factors contributing to this situation. Furthermore, due to excessively stringent regulations controlling the formation, financing, or functioning of non-governmental and civil society organisations, there are severe limitations on internet freedom and significant interference with the freedom of peaceful gathering and association.
6. The Rwandan army has been allegedly involved in military operations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).[8] The Rwandan army is allegedly aiding the M23 armed group, with reports of alleged widespread deaths or injuries to civilians; people going missing or being kidnapped; forced movement of civilian populations; torture; physical abuse; sexual violence related to the conflict; and illegal recruitment or use of children in armed groups.[9]
Enforced disappearances
7. Reports of enforced disappearances continue to persist. The UN Special Procedures publicly requested Rwanda to reveal the whereabouts and fate of three individuals who had disappeared under duress.[10] As of July 2024, the whereabouts of Rwandan human rights defender Yusuf Ahmed Gasana continued to remain unknown. Gasana was abducted from his residence in Nairobi, Kenya, and purportedly transported to Rwanda.[11] The UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, as well as his family, were unable to obtain information from the Kenyan and Rwandan authorities. To date, the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance has not been ratified by Rwanda.
Freedom of Expression, Movement and Association
8. Rwanda exerts strict control over non-governmental organisations. A new NGO law was passed that placed limitations on national NGOs' management and budgeting choices. One of the restrictions was that they could not spend more than 20% of their budget on overhead without giving the Rwanda Governance Board a documented justification. The statute gives the board the authority to permanently ban NGOs for various actions.[12] JAI expresses concern with respect to the freedom of expression and freedom to associate of NGOs and persons associated with NGO.
9. Immigration officials denied Human Rights Watch’s (HRW) researcher Clementine de Montjoye entry at Kigali airport in May, citing “immigration reasons”. This was the fourth instance of immigration officials blocking an HRW researcher from entering Rwanda since 2008.[13]
10. The High Court’s denial of Victoire Ingabire’s petition for legal rehabilitation in March 2024 effectively disqualified her from running for office. Upon her release from prison nearly six years ago, she was additionally obligated to submit a monthly report to the local prosecutor and request permission to go overseas.[14] Typically, the lifting of these requirements would occur once her prison sentence ends in October 2025. The fact that Victoire Ingabire’s several requests for permission to travel overseas have been ignored is, according to her public statements, a breach of her freedom of movement.[15] JAI expresses concerns related to public participation in government.
Equal Rights of Women
11. Rwanda’s efforts to advance gender equality and women's empowerment (GEWE), particularly in political participation, are laudable. Women hold nearly two-thirds of its parliamentary seats and 52 per cent of cabinet positions. Numerous sectors have also witnessed significant progress.[16]
12. Nevertheless, women experience greater intimate partner violence than the world average (38%).[17] JAI urges Rwanda to undertake measures to lower the levels of intimate partner violence against women.
Refugee and Migrant rights
13. According to a 2023 report from Refugees International, Rwanda’s “economic inclusion” refugee policies “stand out as a model with lessons learnt for East Africa and beyond.”[18] Rwanda hosts nearly 135,000 refugees, primarily from the neighbouring DRC (60.8%) and Burundi (38.4%).[19] Refugees can travel, work, own property, register businesses, and open bank accounts. However, the country’s legislation also authorises the detention of non-nationals, and numerous reports indicate that vulnerable groups have been detained; the extent of this practice remains unclear.
14. While Rwanda has established a reputation for embracing refugees and asylum seekers, JAI expresses concern that such policies may be subject to exploitation by third-party States seeking to avoid their own obligations under applicable international law, including international refugee law. For example, the UK government planned to expel asylum seekers who arrive unlawfully and send them to Rwanda.[20] Ultimately, the UK Supreme Court declared the agreement illegal on account of its review of the human rights record in Rwanda.[21]
15. More than a million Congolese have been displaced as a result of Rwanda’s support for the M23 rebel group in eastern Congo.[22] The president of Rwanda has openly politicised refugee rights by threatening to reject Congolese refugees.[23] Rwanda is an occupying power under international humanitarian law, as evidenced by its deployment of up to 9,000 troops in eastern Congo during the peak of the M23's offensive in January and February 2025, as well as its seeming total influence over the M23.[24] According to media reports, UN and military sources, and witnesses, Rwandan military officers have led and coordinated strategies during offensives.[25]Rwanda-backed M23 rebels in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo have allegedly committed unlawful killings, rape, and other war crimes since late 2022, as per Human Rights Watch.[26]
16. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Volker Turk has alleged that Rwanda-backed rebels of killing children and attacking hospitals, as well as warehouses that store humanitarian aid.[27] UN experts report that about 4,000 soldiers from neighbouring Rwanda support the rebels.[28] OHCHR has confirmed a variety of human rights abuses undertaken by Rwandan-backed rebels, Congolese troops, and allied militias.[29]
17. The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda have agreed to bring an end to the conflict under a US-brokered accord signed in Washington on June 27 that commits the two nations to stop fighting, halt their use of armed proxies, and work together to develop the natural resources that lie along their shared border.[30] However, human rights violations remain to be addressed, along with accountability related to the same.
Recommendations
18. Strengthen Civil Liberties. JAI recommends that Rwanda repeal restrictive laws on NGOs, media, and public assembly to ensure freedom of expression and association; end arbitrary arrests, enforced disappearances, and extrajudicial killings, and conduct independent investigations into past cases; allow genuine political opposition by removing barriers to participation; and allow unfettered access for UN and human rights monitors, including HRW and Amnesty International.
19. Ensure Judicial Independence & Accountability. JAI recommends that Rwanda prosecute security forces implicated in torture, unlawful killings, and transnational repression; end impunity for abuses against street children and detainees, enforcing protections under the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and ratifying the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance.
20. End Support for Armed Groups JAI recommends that Rwanda immediately withdraw Rwandan troops and cease support for M23 rebels in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC); cooperate with UN investigations into war crimes, including forced deportations, sexual violence, and unlawful killings in eastern DRC; and respect the Geneva Conventions by halting forcible transfers of civilians from occupied territories.
21. Advance Gender Equality & Women’s Rights. JAI recommends that Rwanda strengthen enforcement of laws against gender-based violence.
22. Protect Refugees & Asylum Seekers. JAI recommends that Rwanda ensure non-refoulement and fair asylum procedures, particularly for Congolese refugees; investigate abuses in detention centres and provide identification documents for all refugees; end the detention of vulnerable groups, including women and children, under immigration laws; improve disability-inclusive policies, ensuring access to healthcare, disaster warnings, and public services.
23. Comply with International Law and Engage in International Cooperation. JAI recommends that Rwanda strengthen its compliance with international law by bringing its human rights practices in alignment with the above-referenced international conventions.
[1]Berriault, L. (2024, July 25). Kagame’s legacy in Rwanda – GIS Reports. GIS Reports. https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/rwanda-kagame-2/
[2]Human rights in Rwanda. (2022). Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/east-africa-the-horn-and-great-lakes/rwanda/report-rwanda/
[3]BTI 2024 Rwanda Country Report. (n.d.). BTI 2024. https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/RWA
[4]Rwanda: Freedom in the World 2025 Country Report | Freedom House. (2024). Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/country/rwanda/freedom-world/2025
[5]“As long as we live on the streets, they will beat us.” (2023). In Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/01/27/long-we-live-streets-they-will-beat-us/rwandas-abusive-detention-children
[6]Clémentine de Montjoye. (2023, October 10). “Join Us or Die.” Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2023/10/10/join-us-or-die/rwandas-extraterritorial-repression
[7]Rwanda. (2024, October 7). RSF. https://rsf.org/en/country/rwanda
[8] Human Rights Watch, “DR Congo: Rwandan Forces, M23 rebels Shell civilians - Democratic Republic of the Congo. (September 26, 2024)” https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/26/dr-congo-rwandan-forces-m23-rebels-shell-civilians
[9] Human Rights Watch, “DR Congo: M23 armed group forcibly transferring civilians - Democratic Republic of the Congo. (June 18, 2025). https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/06/18/dr-congo-m23-armed-group-forcibly-transferring-civilians
[10] Rwanda must provide answers on the fate of abducted brothers Jean Nsengimana and Antoine Zihabamwe: UN experts. (2024). OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/10/rwanda-must-provide-answers-fate-abducted-brothers-jean-nsengimana-and
[11] Kenya and Rwanda must provide information about disappeared human rights defender: Special Rapporteur. (2024). OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/07/kenya-and-rwanda-must-provide-information-about-disappeared-human-rights
[12] Bhughes. (2024, November 12). Rwanda. ICNL. https://www.icnl.org/resources/civic-freedom-monitor/rwanda
[13] “Rwanda: Human Rights Watch Researcher Barred”. (2024). Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/05/16/rwanda-human-rights-watch-researcher-barred
[14]Chemam, M. (2025, June 21). Lawyers decry arrest of Rwandan opponent Ingabire as “unlawful and arbitrary.” RFI.https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20250621-lawyers-decry-arrest-of-rwandan-opponent-ingabire-as-unlawful-and-arbitrary-kagame
[15]Ingabire Victoire Umuhoza v. Rwanda - Global Freedom of Expression. (2023, November 11). Global Freedom of Expression. https://globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu/cases/ingabire-victoire-umuhoza-v-rwanda/
[16]Vergès, M. de. (2024, July 15). In Rwanda, women occupy high positions. Le Monde.fr; Le Monde. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/m-le-mag/article/2024/07/15/in-rwanda-women-occupy-high-positions_6684994_117.html
[17] Rwanda | World Bank Gender Data Portal. (2024). World Bank Gender Data Portal. https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/economies/rwanda
[18] Turning Policy into Reality: Refugees’ Access to Work in Rwanda (2023). Refugees International. https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports-briefs/turning-policy-into-reality-refugees-access-to-work-in-rwanda/
[19] Rwanda Immigration Detention Profile. (2023). Global Detention Project. https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/countries/africa/rwanda
[20] UK bill to send asylum seekers to Rwanda “undercuts human rights”: UN rights chief. (2024, February 19). UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/02/1146662
[21] UK Supreme Court finds the UK-Rwanda asylum scheme unlawful. (2023, November 15). Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/15/uk-supreme-court-finds-uk-rwanda-asylum-scheme-unlawful
[22] DR Congo: M23 Drives Displaced People From Goma Camps. (2025, February 13). Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/02/13/dr-congo-m23-drives-displaced-people-goma-camps
[23] Mutagoma, G., & Bagiruwubusa, E. (2023, January 9). Rwandan President Threatens to Evict Congolese Refugees. Voice of America; Voice of America (VOA News). https://www.voanews.com/a/rwandan-president-threatens-to-evict-congolese-refugees-/6911213.html
[24]Vance, C., & Maddocks, J. (2025, February 25). The conflict in eastern DRC and the state responsibility of Rwanda and Uganda. Lieber Institute West Point. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/conflict-eastern-drc-state-responsibility-rwanda-uganda/
[25]DR Congo: Atrocities by Rwanda-Backed M23 Rebels. (2023, February 6). Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/06/dr-congo-atrocities-rwanda-backed-m23-rebels
[26]DR Congo: Killings, Rapes by Rwanda-Backed M23 Rebels. (2023, June 13). Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/06/13/dr-congo-killings-rapes-rwanda-backed-m23-rebels
[27] PBS News, “UN human rights chief accuses Rwanda-backed rebels in east Congo of killing children, attacking hospitals” (February 18, 2025) https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/un-human-rights-chief-accuses-rwanda-backed-rebels-in-east-congo-of-killing-children-attacking-hospitals.
[28] BBC News, “Two armies accused of backing DR Congo's feared rebels” (9 July 2024) https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c134kgdpd6do
[29]DR Congo: Human rights violations could amount to war crimes, UN experts say. (2025, June 16). UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/06/1164466
[30]Psaledakis, D., Rolley, S., & Ange Kasongo. (2025, June 27). Rwanda, Congo sign peace deal in US to end fighting, attract investment. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/rwanda-democratic-republic-congo-set-sign-peace-agreement-washington-2025-06-27/
Link on the United Nations System
Universal Periodic Review Fourth Cycle - Rwanda - Reference Documents on the United Nations System