Madagascar
I. Introduction
1. Manmade climate change continues to cause increasing numbers of deaths, displacement, and economic loss worldwide.[1] African countries “face heightened vulnerability” due to resource extraction and infrastructure challenges resulting from the historical plundering of the continent.[2] Madagascar is the fourth most climate change affected country in the world, and manmade climate change continues to violate the human rights of Madagascans.[3]
2. Though Madagascar has contributed less than 0.01% to the global share of greenhouse gas emissions,[4]manmade climate change continues to devastate its population and economy.[5] Madagascar, the fourth largest island in the world, is increasingly faced with droughts and cyclones caused by manmade climate change, among other reasons.
3. As exemplified by the Pakistan case, where a country responsible for less than 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions pays a “supersized price for manmade climate change” according to the UN Secretary-General,[6]vulnerable and low-income States are bearing a disproportionate impact from human-induced climate change; especially geographic vulnerable areas. Therefore, it is more accurate to describe “manmade climate change” as “high emitter state-made (HESM) climate change.”
4. Madagascar, on its end, continues to face drought, cyclones, tiomena (red sandstorms), as well as second-order consequences of HESM climate change, such as food and water insecurity.[7] While some environmental degradation occurs within the country’s bounds, it is important to situate that degradation within the global political economy. This pursuit—climate justice—is the cause of a growing number of climate vulnerable countries. We urge Madagascar to join this movement for climate justice, including climate reparations, commensurate with harms inflicted on similarly situated States grappling with colonial and neocolonial legacies.[8]
5. A variety of human rights are implicated in the situation in Madagascar where HESM climate change continues to ravage the population and environment.[9] These include the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment (A/HRC/RES/48/13 and A/RES/76/300),[10] the right to life (Art. 3, UDHR), the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of every person and their family (Art. 25, UDHR), the right to work (Art. 23, UDHR).[11] Moreover, it is clear that Madagascans have incurred “loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change” (Art. 8, Paris Agreement).[12] The next few sections describe the present circumstances in Madagascar that undermine each of these obligations, in direct contravention of the standards set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) as it was proclaimed in General Assembly Res. 217(A) by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. This report contributes to a growing trend of recognition that least developed countries (LDCs) are disproportionately impacted by loss and damage resulting from HESM climate change.[13]
6. As enumerated in Section 4, we urge Madagascar to review its policies with respect to its resources, including agricultural production and deforestation policies, to ensure compliance with the right of self-determination of the Madagascan people—a core principle in international human rights law as enshrined in Article 1 of the UN Charter. We encourage Madagascar to protect its peoples’ self-determination from breaches caused by the emitting practices of high-emitter States. Moreover, we urge all high-emitter States to lower greenhouse gas emissions and pursue climate justice in recognition of their role in degrading the human rights of Madagascans.
II. Resource Extraction Jeopardizing the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment
7. The right to clean, healthy and sustainable environment has been affirmed and acknowledged by the UN Human Rights Council and UN General Assembly.[14] Resource extraction—specifically deforestation, which releases carbon from trees into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide—has severely jeopardized Madagascans’ right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment. Madagascar is extraordinarily biodiverse: approximately 80% of all its plant and animal species are only found there.[15] With forests, savannah, steppes, rivers, lakes, wetlands, mangroves, drylands, and reefs, Madagascar is one of the thirty-most biodiverse countries on earth.[16]Biodiversity “is essential to the existence and proper functioning of all ecosystems.”[17] Madagascar’s biodiversity underpins its food security and water security, meaning that threats to biodiversity are threats to the right of Madagascans to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment as well as its resources and subsistence, a critical element of the right of self-determination to the people of Madagascar.
8. Deforestation is one of the biggest threats to Madagascar’s biodiversity, particularly because 90% of Madagascar’s endemic species live or heavily rely on the forest.[18] Some estimates suggest that up to 50% of forest cover in Madagascar is gone, taking with it the necessary habitats for the country’s countless plant and animal species.[19] These levels of deforestation are fueled by international demand for Madagascar’s natural resources.[20]
9. The degradation of the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment in Madagascar can be traced back to French colonization beginning in 1896 when French forces violently occupied the island and imposed colonial rule. A new export-based economy was constructed—including railroad systems, seaports, cities, and agricultural industries—in Madagascar to uphold colonial rule. Rice, cassava, rubber, raffia, meat, and graphite were key exports at first, followed by coffee, vanilla, cloves, and tobacco later on.[21] Just a decade into French colonial rule, food insecurity in Madagascar—which remains to this day—began. In 1911, the country experienced a rice shortage due to excess international demand for labor in the coffee sector and the vulnerability of rice to weather changes.[22] Seeking to control Malagasy peoples, French governors imposed policies that kept residents in forced labor conditions, spurring protest burns of the dwindling forest acres that remained. Then in 1921, France opened Madagascar’s forests to logging concessions and illegal logging flourished; some estimate that 70% of Madagascar’s primary forest was destroyed in the first three decades of French colonial rule.[23]
10. Today, large-scale commercial plantations and international commodity prices bear heavily upon forest loss in Madagascar. Researchers have argued that the 1989 decision of the European Union to establish the Programmes d’Option Spécifiques à l’Eloignement et à l’Insularité (POSEI), which supported tax breaks on imported grain in southeast Africa and in turn spurred international demand for Madagascan maize, was the key inflection point that set Madagascar on the present course.[24] With international demand for maize coming to Madagascar thanks to POSEI, in the period that followed (1990-2000), Madagascar experienced a 10% loss in forest area; in the same period, the world experienced just a 4% loss.[25] International demand for exports from Madagascar continues to spur deforestation and other exploitation of natural resources.
11. In recent years, in the period since 2009 when the European Union, World Bank, and African Union halted international aid to Madagascar for four years following political unrest,[26] illegal logging has increased, accelerating deforestation and its effects.[27] In May 2024, a report found that while exports such as vanilla and cloves continue to dominate exports from Madagascar, foreign nations are actually paying less for these goods, including cobalt and nickel, even though greater quantities of these resources are being extracted from Madagascar. This pattern indicates a pernicious form of accelerating exploitative resource extraction from Madagascar by foreign countries.[28]
12. In order to safeguard the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment in Madagascar, we urge its government to immediately reevaluate all agreements with extractive industries to ensure that all resource development in Madagascar is done consistently with this right. If necessary, it could consider a boycott of all deforestation and extractive projects. Further, we urge Madagascar to consider the impacts of foreign investment agreements which are arguably exploitative, and to consider whether climate reparations to Madagascar are appropriate in light of its findings on this matter.
13. Moreover, we call on all countries that have in the past and/or continue to rely on exports from Madagascar to immediately commit to protecting Madagascans’ right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment[29] and commit to fulsome climate reparations for all Madagascans. For example, in 2022, a private London-based company with the explicit mission of extracting crude oil from Madagascar’s Tsimoro region, initiated a $300 million USD plan to extract 10,000 barrels a day.[30] Madagascar’s main customers include the United States (16.5%), France (15.7%), China (14.2%), Japan (12%), and the Netherlands (4.5%),[31] almost all of which are high-emitter States on a historic or present basis, and arrangements with such States must ensure the protection of the environment in Madagascar and contribute to Madagascar’s climate resilience.
14. Similarly, Madagascar must also take stronger measures to prevent similar theft of Madagascar’s natural resources by animal traffickers.[32] Countries like Thailand import wild species from Madagascar at astonishing rates, including 89% from the Ivato International Airport in Madagascar, fueling the illegal wildlife trade that destroys biodiversity in Madagascar.[33]
III. Climate-Induced Disasters threatening the right to life and adequate standard of living
15. As provided by Article 25 of the UDHR, everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for themselves and their family. This right to a standard of living overlaps with the right to life provided in Article 3 (see also ICCPR Article 6), which is a “supreme right from which no derogation is permitted, even in situations of armed conflict and other public emergencies that threaten the life of the nation.”[34] In 2021, the UN claimed that Madagascar was on the brink of the world’s first “climate change famine,” and unfortunately, droughts in the years since have continued to jeopardize the health of Madagascans. 1.3 million people in Madagascar face high levels of acute food insecurity.[35] 45.6% of Madagascans have access to basic water services and only 12.3% have access to basic sanitation needs.[36] According to the Global Hunger Index, Madagascar has a level of hunger that is “alarming,” and the country ranks second to last for countries with sufficient data to calculate these scores.[37]
16. The loss of biodiversity in Madagascar directly harms Madagascans, particularly in southern Madagascar where food, water, and economic insecurity are ubiquitous.[38] Out of its 30 million population, 18 million people in Madagascar rely on biodiversity for subsistence needs, with 80% of those being entirely dependent on natural resources.[39]
17. Biodiversity loss aside, drought and natural disasters are huge drivers in the violations of these rights to life. We raise alarm that Madagascar is the site of the world’s first possible climate change-caused famine. Between 2019 and 2021, Madagascar received approximately 60% of its usual average rainfall—thirty-year lows.[40] As a result of sequential drought, Madagascans, who predominately rely on agriculture, are unable to provide sustenance for themselves. The present conditions make it untenable for all Madagascans to have their basic food and water needs met.[41] With over 90% of Madagascans living on less than $3.10 USD a day and nearly 40% of children experiencing chronic malnutrition, the impacts of “climate shocks” such as droughts and natural disasters—public emergencies according to the UN Human Rights Committee, are amplified in Madagascar. In February 2024, the UN Climate Crisis Coordinator for the El Niño Response stated that a drought was again expected in Madagascar this year.[42]
18. The droughts and natural disasters ravaging Madagascar are tied to the practices of industrialized states. Researchers anticipate that Madagascar is likely to suffer from stronger cyclones and more droughts as global temperatures continue to rise.[43] 2023 was by far the warmest year since global records began.[44]
19. The crucial fact is that Madagascar is not contributing to global temperature rises through greenhouse gas emissions.[45] Nonetheless, according to researchers, Madagascar faces climate risks ranging from “reduced and more variable precipitation, more frequent droughts, more intense cyclones, and rising sea levels.”[46] The solution is clear: high-emitting states must pave the way with substantial reductions in their greenhouse gas emissions lest they violate all international human rights laws and norms.
20. JAI raises alarm at another growing concern: pollution. Birds in Madagascar can no longer hear themselves sing, causing reproductive disorders and greater vulnerability of the birds to predators.[47] Air and water pollution are also extremely high in Madagascar.[48] In Madagascar’s most air polluted city, Antananarivo, the pollution is often caused by vehicle exhaust gas and bush fires among other reasons. Household air pollution is the second leading cause of disease in Madagascar, where 99% of households rely on solid biomass as cooking fuel.[49] Strokes are the leading cause of death in Madagascar, attributable to hypertension, alcohol and tobacco consumption, and diabetes,[50] which are all linked to poverty that is reinstated upon Madagascans by the global extraction apparatus, depleting the country’s residents of an adequate standard of life.
21. While these harms described above implicate the right to life, the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment, and an adequate standard of living, they may also violate Madagascans’ right to work as protected by Article 23 of the UDHR. Agriculture employs 80% of the population.[51] This means that the loss of biodiversity, natural disasters, droughts, and other consequences of HESM climate change described above are devastating Madagascans’ right to work in the country’s current agriculture-dependent economy.
22. Living on an island with rapidly depleting food resources and water access, and displaced to the remaining livable portions of the country, Madagascans could face violations of their rights to free movement and residence and freedom from arbitrary deprivation of property, and at a meta level, the right to a nationality.[52]Such loss of resources also has implications for the right of self-determination protected by international law, including without limitation Common Article 1 of the ICCPR and ICESCR.
IV. Recommendations for Madagascar
23. In light of violations to Madagascans’ right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment that trace back to French colonialism, we urge Madagascar to confront the extractive deforestation, export, and other practices within the state. In particular we urge Madagascar to review its policies to ensure that resource development is consistent with the right of self-determination of the Madagascan people. To the extent that such resource extraction is not consistent with long term, viable use of such resources, contracts should be reviewed and reconsidered. We also urge Madagascar to take stronger measures to prevent theft of its natural resources by animal and plant traffickers.
24. In light of violations to Madagascans’ rights to life and to a standard of living adequate for their health and well-being, we urge the country to seek urgent commitments from highly industrialized states to lower greenhouse gas emissions. We call on Madagascar to explore fulsome climate reparations from all countries who import resources from Madagascar, past and present, including adequate compensation for the harms caused. These reparations can be sought pursuant to Article 8 of the Paris Agreement and losses in human lives, human capital (due to widespread food and water insecurity, conditions of poverty caused by the droughts), loss of revenue from agricultural exports, incalculable harms from deforestation and biodiversity loss during French colonial rule of Madagascar, and far more.
25. We also recommend that Madagascar explore measures that remedy the conditions described that alienate the human rights of Madagascans. Madagascar should explore litigation in the international court system and in domestic courts of export partners, such as the U.S. where the Alien Tort Statute provides general jurisdiction to Malagasy victims of American customary international law violations. Madagascar could also advance “ecocide” as an international law, as recommended to the International Criminal Court by the UN Special Rapporteur on human rights in the context of climate change.[53] Finally, Madagascar could explore potential international law challenges that borrow the logic of the recent Article 8 case at the European Court of Human Rights for climate inaction.[54]
26. During the last cycle, Partnership Network International (Corsier, Switzerland) recommended the following:
“Madagascar prevent land grabbing by conducting a public consultation with the Malagasy population and the local community before granting contracts to investors; promote transparent and equitable land governance: application without exclusion of the right to inheritance, prior recognition of the right to enjoy land or unwritten land rights of the Malagasy people on the lands of their ancestors. PNI finally recommended that Madagascar continue the implementation of land reform and revise laws on land management in the large industrial, mining, oil, quarry, coastal, agricultural, tourist and other large-scale operations.”
We reaffirm these recommendations.
[1] Quantifying the Impact of Climate Change on Human Health, World Economic Forum (January 16, 20224), https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Quantifying_the_Impact_of_Climate_Change_on_Human_Health_2024.pdf.
[2] Id. See also Ugochukwu Nwaokoro, The Plunder of Africa: Exposing the Exploitation of African Resources and How to End It (2023).
[3] Climate-Affected Madagascar Adapts to New Reality: A UN Resident Coordinator Blog, UN News (February 20, 2024), https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/02/1146737.
[4] C02 Emissions By Country, Worldometer (last visited May 19, 2024), https://www.worldometers.info/co2-emissions/co2-emissions-by-country/.
[5] Angela Rigden, Christopher Golden, Duo Chan & Peter Huybers, Climate Change Linked to Drought in Southern Madagascar, Nature (February 8, 2024), https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-024-00583-8.
[6] Press Release: Climate Carnage in Pakistan ‘Beyond Imagination,’ Secretary-General Tells General Assembly, Urging Massive Support for Flood Victims, United Nations (October 7, 2022), https://press.un.org/en/2022/sgsm21519.doc.htm.
[7] Climate-Affected Madagascar Adapts to New Reality: A UN Resident Coordinator Blog, UN News (February 20, 2024), https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/02/1146737.
[8] Michael E. Odijie, Unintentional Neo-Colonialism? Three Generations of Trade and Development Relationship Between EU and West Africa, Journal of European Integration (March 30, 2021), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/07036337.2021.1902318?needAccess=true.
[9] See, e.g., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf.
[10] Special Rapporteur on the human right to a health environment (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-environment.
[11] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.
[12] The Paris Agreement, United Nations (2015), https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf.
[13] See, e.g. Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion on the Climate Emergency and Human Rights, Republic of Vanuatu (December 18, 2023), https://corteidh.or.cr/sitios/observaciones/OC-32/3_Vanuatu.pdf.
[14] Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to a Healthy Environment, United Nations (last visited May 8, 2024), https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-environment.
[15] Madagascar Country Profile, Convention on Biological Diversity (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=mg.
[16] Rhett A. Butler, The Top 10 Most Biodiverse Countries, Mongabay (May 21, 2016), https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/top-10-biodiverse-countries/.
[17] EnviroAtlas Benefit Category: Biodiversity Conservation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (last visited May 10, 2024), https://www.epa.gov/enviroatlas/enviroatlas-benefit-category-biodiversity-conservation.
[18] Deforestation in Madagascar: A Threat to Its Biodiversity, Escuela de Organización Industrial (February 4, 2014), https://www.eoi.es/blogs/imsd/deforestation-in-madagascar-a-threat-to-its-biodiversity/#:~:text=Deforestation%20is%20a%20major%20threat,Carolina%20State%20University%2C%202010
[19] Katie Hallsten, How much of Madagascar’s Forest Have We Really Lost?, Lemur Conservation Network (September 30, 2020), https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/how-much-of-madagascars-forest-have-we-lost/.
[20] Ivan R. Scales, Conservation and Environmental Management in Madagascar (2014).
[21] Madagascar: Outside Influences (1861-95), Britannica (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.britannica.com/place/Madagascar/Outside-influences-1861-95.
[22] Madagascar: Colonialism as the Historical Root Cause of Deforestation, World Rainforest Movement (January 2, 2003), https://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin-articles/madagascar-colonialism-as-the-historical-root-cause-of-deforestation.
[23] Id.
[24] Bart Minten & Philippe Méral, Trade Liberalization, Rural Poverty, and the Environment: Two Studies of Agricultural Exports in Madagascar in International Trade and Environmental Degradation: A Case Study on the Loss of Spiny Forest in Madagascar (2006). See also Ivan R. Scales, Conservation and Environmental Management in Madagascar 117 (2014).
[25] Megan Clark, Deforestation in Madagascar: Consequences of Population Growth and Unsustainable Agricultural ProcessesGlobal Majoirty E-Journal, at 66 (2012), https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/clark_accessible.pdf.
[26] Andrew Gardner, EU Restores Aid to Madagascar, Politico (May 22, 2014), https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-restores-aid-to-madagascar/.
[27] Rhett A. Butler, Challenging the Illegal Logging Regime in Madagascar, Mongabay (December 16, 2018), https://news.mongabay.com/2018/12/challenging-the-illegal-logging-regime-in-madagascar-insider/.
[28] Commerce Extérieur: Les Exportations Malgaches Ont Chuté De Plus De 30% (May 10, 2024), https://newsmada.com/2024/05/10/commerce-exterieur-les-exportations-malgaches-ont-chute-de-plus-de-30/.
[29] Thea Riofrancos, Extractivism and Extractivismo, Global South Studies: A Collective Publication with The Global South (November 11, 2020), https://globalsouthstudies.as.virginia.edu/key-concepts/extractivism-and-extractivismo.
[30] Iain Esau, Madagascar Oil Contract Awards For $300m Tsimiroro Project, Upstream (March 16, 2022), https://www.upstreamonline.com/field-development/madagascar-oil-nears-contract-awards-for-300m-tsimiroro-project/2-1-1182631.
[31] Madagascar: Economic and Political Overview, Lloyds Bank (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/madagascar/trade-profile.
[32] Thai-US Seized 48 Lemurs And 1,076 Tortoises From Wildlife Trafficking Ring (May 2, 2024), https://www.khaosodenglish.com/news/2024/05/02/thai-us-seizes-48-lemurs-and-1076-tortoises-from-wildlife-trafficking-ring/#:~:text=Thai%2DUS%20Seizes%2048%20Lemurs%20and%201%2C076%20Tortoises%20from%20Wildlife%20Trafficking%20Ring,-By&text=According%20to%20the%20investigation%2C%20the,island%20off%20the%20African%20coast.
[33] Trafics Illicites Des Richesses Naturelles: Des Pertes Incommensurables… Pour Le Tourisme (May 10, 2024), https://newsmada.com/2024/05/10/trafics-illicites-des-richesses-naturelles-des-pertes-incommensurables-pour-le-tourisme/.
[34] General Comment No. 36 on Article 6: Right to Life, UN Human Rights Committee (September 3, 2019), https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/general-comment-no-36-article-6-right-life.
[35] Humanitarian Crisis Looms In Madagasar Amid Drought and Pandemic, United Nations News (January 12, 2021), https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081892.
[36] Press Release: Madagascar: $220 Million to Improve Basic Water and Sanitation Services and Supply, World Bank Group (June 20, 2022), https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/06/20/madagascar-220-million-to-improve-basic-water-and-sanitation-services-and-supply#:~:text=Madagascar%3A%20%24220%20Million%20to%20Improve%20Basic%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20Services%20and%20Supply,-Share%20more&text=ANTANANARIVO%2C%20June%2017%2C%202022%E2%80%94,%24220%20million%20National%20Water%20Project.
[37] Madagascar, Global Hunger Index (June 23, 2024), https://www.globalhungerindex.org/madagascar.html.
[38] Hélène Ralimanana et al, Madagascar’s Extraordinary Biodiversity: Threats and Opportunities, Journal of Science (December 2, 2022), https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adf1466.
[39] Madagascar – Country Profile, Convention on Biological Diversity (May 9, 2024), https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=mg.
[40] Angela Dewan, Madagascar’s Food Crisis Has Been Blamed On Climate Change. These Scientists Say That’s Wrong, CNN (December 2, 2021), https://www.cnn.com/2021/12/01/africa/madagascar-climate-food-crisis-attribution-study-intl/index.html.
[41] Madagascar, World Food Programme (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.wfp.org/countries/madagascar.
[42] El Niño and Climate Crisis Raise Drought Fears in Madagascar, United Nations News (February 2, 2024), https://news.un.org/en/interview/2024/02/1146152.
[43] Angela Dewan, Madagascar’s Food Crisis Has Been Blamed on Climate Change. These Scientists say That’s Wrong, CNN (December 2, 2021), https://www.cnn.com/2021/12/01/africa/madagascar-climate-food-crisis-attribution-study-intl/index.html.
[44] 2023 Was The World’s Warmest Year on Record, By Far, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (January 12, 2024), https://www.noaa.gov/news/2023-was-worlds-warmest-year-on-record-by-far.
[45] Adam Taylor, Madagascar Is Headed Toward a Climate Change-Linked Famine It Did Not Create, The Washington Post (July 1, 2021), https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/07/01/madagascar-climate-famine/
[46] Sarah R. Weiskopf, Janet A. Cushing, Toni Lyn Morelli & Bonnie J.E. Myers, Climate Change Risks and Adaptation Options for Madagascar, Ecology & Society (2021), https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol26/iss4/art36/.
[47] Valisoa Rasolofomboahangy, In Madagascar’s Capital, Pollution Threatens An Oasis for Birds (July 2, 2020),https://news.mongabay.com/2020/07/in-madagascars-capital-pollution-threatens-an-oasis-for-birds/.
[48] Pollution in Madagascar, Numbeo (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.numbeo.com/pollution/country_result.jsp?country=Madagascar.
[49] Addressing Household Air Pollution: A Case Study in Rural Madagascar, World Bank Group (September 1, 2013), https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/460921468270893342/addressing-household-air-pollution-a-case-study-in-rural-madagascar#:~:text=Household%20air%20pollution%20is%20the,of%20cook%20stoves%20in%20Africa.
[50] Julie Riedmann et al., Proportion of Stroke Types in Madagascar: A Tertiary-Level Hospital-Based Case Series, PLoS One (October 14, 2022), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9565373/#:~:text=In%2Dhospital%20mortality&text=Most%20in%2Dhospital%20deaths%20were,respiratory%20failure%20and%20cardiac%20infarction.
[51] Working Paper: Peter Glick, Patterns of Employment and Earnings in Madagascar (2000), https://cfnpp.cornell.edu/images/wp92.pdf.
[52] Articles 13 & 15, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations (last visited June 23, 2024), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.
[53] Kate Mackintosh & Lisa Oldring, Watch This Space: Momentum Toward an International Crime of Ecocide, Just Security (December 5, 2022), https://www.justsecurity.org/84367/watch-this-space-momentum-toward-an-international-crime-of-ecocide/.
[54] Jacob Knutson, Swiss Women Win Landmark Climate Change Ruling, Axios (April 9, 2024), https://www.axios.com/2024/04/09/switzerland-climate-change-women-lawsuit.
Link on the United Nations System
Universal Periodic Review Fourth Cycle - Madagascar - Reference Documents on the United Nations System